The effects of illegal drug use in the United States has been extensively researched based on four factors: race, gender, age, and income. According to De Wit (2008, p.22), there is a subcultural theory that explains how certain social groups have an impending influence on opinions about drugs, pressure on the illegal consumption of drugs and how these affect the overall stereotypic mindset on drug abuse in the United States of America. In this literature review, a comprehensive outlook on four factors is elucidated: age, gender, race, and income.
There is profound statistical proof that drug abuse in America is centered on impulsivity (McCabe et al., 2007, p. 75). A current review by De Wit (2008, p. 22) suggests that drug use is directly linked to impulsive behaviors. Further, De Wit (2008, p. 22) clarifies that research on impulsive consumption and use of illegal drugs is confounded on the theory that behavioral measure based on socio-cultural aspects, such as race, gender, income, and age are contributory to the increasing addiction and use of illegal drugs in developed countries including America. A concurring study by Etten and Anthony (1999, p. 117) indicate that the use of illicit drugs is a progressive curve from which beginner drug users begin with mild drugs then gravitate towards heavier drugs. Mild drugs use including marijuana are high but, statistics change when heavier and more consequential drugs including cocaine, and hallucinogens are consumed. According to Etten and Anthony (1999, p. 118) and Fellner (2009, p. 274), marijuana is rated as the highest consumed drug at 51% whereas, drugs including cocaine, hallucinogens, and heroine are consumed lightly (23%, 14%, and 5% respectively). The study is a predicative mirror of the current society. Similarly, Shinew and Parry (2005, p. 379) report that marijuana [98.1%] is the highest consumed drug, trailed by ecstasy [27.5%], cocaine [11.6%], LSD [6.6%], diazepam [6.6%] and heroin [4.1%]. The consumption trends differ based on proposed social paradigms: race, age, gender, and income status.
a. Race
Exploratory studies on the race-based consumption of illicit drugs elucidate that drug consumption in the United States is predicated on racial lines. According to a study by Fellner (2009, p. 274), African Americans are regarded to be the highest consumers of illicit drugs, followed by Whites then minority groups including Hispanics. The assumption in the study by Fellner (2009, p. 275), is that, due to the high arrests among African Americans based on distribution charges, there is a presumption that Blacks are the highest consumers. A study review of drug distribution between 1989 and 2000 proposes that Blacks are 3.8 times more likely to consume drugs in comparison to their White counterparts (Fellner, 2009, p. 275). Similarly, Mitchell and Caudy (2016, p. 101) reveal through a study comprising of 8, 901 participants that 5.2% African Americans are associated with illicit drug use, while, 2.4% and1.5% are Hispanics and Whites. However, this study is compromised by the existing conflicting information surrounding drug consumption based on racial stratification in America.
Interestingly, there are a lot of loopholes concerning racial segregation on basis of drug consumption in America. Further, racial discrimination on illicit drug use is rampant and is a sensitive topic due to the high jurisprudence legalities surrounding the authenticity, integrity and ethical stance of the American judicial system (Beckett et al., 2006, p. 110). Hitherto, et al. (2006, p. 108) devised a strategic outlook on drug abuse classification in America. The authors provide a direct approach to the comparative analysis of how the use of drugs in America is directly related to age, gender and income based on racial divisions. Nonetheless, according to current studies, Shinew and Parry (2005, p. 379) report that illicit drug consumption based on combined factors of age and race is more rampant among Caucasians (23.9%), 10.7% among African Americans, and 14.6% in Asians. The findings, therefore, adds clarity to my thesis by showing to what extents does the racial differences influence illicit drug use. Further, drug abuse is also weighed within the confines of the age of the illicit drug users.
b. Age
A study done by Macleod et al (2004, p. 6) determine that illicit drug use based on race is reliant on environmental, social, and mental factors. Wu and Blazer (2011, p. 481) report that drug abuse is rampant among teenagers and progresses in adult age as compared to children. The availability of mild drugs such as marijuana among teenagers fosters the increased addiction and subsequent illicit drug use. There is a lack of comprehensive documentation of the incidence of drug use amongst adolescents in America. But, Wu and Blazer (2011, p. 481) indicate that drug abuse among baby boomers and those aged between 50 and 64 is rampant and more dangerous. An exploratory report by White et al. (2011, p. 61), concur suggesting that drug abuse among American baby boomers since 2006 has been on the rise. The consequences are dire, and Han et al. (2009, p. 92) confirm that substance use disorder among baby boomers by 2020 will have worsened. Han et al. (2009, p.92) reports that between 2002 and 2006 approximately 2.8 million health issues annually have been reported among older adults. Han et al. (2009, p. 92) therefore, project that the statistics will double by 2020 to 5.7 million per year. The statistics are alarming since 44% of the population of drug users are adults which means, an estimated 39% of the population of teenagers are affected by drug abuse (Han et al., 2009, p. 92). This hypothesis is collaborated by Robins and Przybeck (1985, p. 180) on the basis that young adults between 18 and 24-years of age are at high risks of developing health complications. Health issues are varied, but common factors are cognitive based degeneration especially among juveniles and increased or improved drug abuse to more dangerous drugs including cocaine and heroin later in life among teenagers (Leal & Mier, 2016, p. 336; Squeglia, Jacobus & Tapert, 2009, p.33). Chen and Kandel (1995, p. 44)) in a study to regulate the occurrence of illicit drug consumption amongst young adults revealed that as youngsters grew into their twenties and thirties, the trend in illicit drug consumption increased. Major consumption trends lean towards consumption of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana between teenagehood and early twenties (Barnes, Welte & Hoffman, 2002, p. 170). The risk of increased use of heavy drugs including cocaine and heroin and other illicit drugs propels at peak ages of 21 and 24 but, expedites age of 30 (Barnes, Welte & Hoffman, 2002, p. 170). Thus, the evidence and theories stated by these authors play a major role in my thesis by giving reasons and the how age difference contributes to the drug abuse phenomenon. While considering the age of illicit drug users, gender is also a significant aspect to take into consideration in this study.
c. Gender
Comparative analyses of drug consumption and gender provide a direct link between the use of certain drugs and the differences between men and women (Barnes et al., p. 169). Each gender group has provisional reasons for consuming illicit drugs. Females are more likely probable to use illegal drugs for emotional and cognitive factors while men consume illicit drugs for recreational and peer pressure outcomes (Ettore, 2004, p. 329). As such, women are more likely to misuse prescription drugs which are easily acquired from family members and friends (Berenson & Rahman, 2011, p. 215). Commonly, women abuse drugs to cope with depression, anger, and serious mental factors (Berenson & Rahman, 2011, p.215).
Additionally, there is a variance between how males and females view drug use and opportunities for drug use. According to a study review by Etten and Anthony (1999, p. 120) males are more likely to consumer variations of drugs due to peer pressure and stereotypic mindset that males can handle drugs and the risks are minimal compared to females. However, according to a study survey in areas of New Haven, Baltimore and St. Louis show that males are at higher risk of health consequences compared to females (between 1.3 and 1.9 times higher). Research by Wagner et al. (2007, p. 128) report that the consumption of illicit drugs between females and males are explicitly different. Wagner et al. (2007, p 128) concluded that men experiment more on alcohol, inhalants, anabolizers, crack and cocaine. On the other hand, both genders experiment more on tobacco, marijuana, hallucinogens, amphetamines, anticholinergics, and other illegal drugs (Humesky, 2010, p. 7). Further, a study report by Johnston (2010, p. 22) found that illicit drug consumption among college males is higher compared to college females. In an age group factor of 12th graders, college students, and young adults between 1975 and 2008, Johnston (2010, p. 22) discovered that men and women are more likely to consume illicit drugs at the same rate. The research and study from these authors, therefore, support my thesis by giving insight on how gender influences illicit drug abuse. Nevertheless, both genders have an economic factor to consider when dealing with substance abuse.
d. Income
There is a strong hypothesis that correlates the association of socioeconomic status and illicit drug abuse (Daniel et al., 2009, p 143). Despite the presence of robust literature on income and illicit drug abuse, there is little to be interpreted from such. Nonetheless, Galea and Vlahov (2002, p. 135) report that social determinants are the main triggers of illicit drug consumption. Social determinants including environment and living conditions as well as resources indirectly exacerbate the consumption of illicit drugs. Homelessness can be a trigger for increased drug consumption as reported by Galea and Vlahov (2002, p. 135). The living conditions motivate the homeless to engage in iniquitous behavior including prostitution and criminal actions to fund their growing need for illicit drugs. The health disparity is worrying with increasing rates of HIV and AIDS transmission alongside other sexually transmitted diseases. African Americans are the worst affected with rates of 66 per 100, 000 infections per annum compared to Hispanic Americans and Whites (Galea & Vlahov, 2002, p.135). Income rates play a significant role in creating the socioeconomic gap that faces young people in America.